Digitalization and Data Centers<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Advancing digitization also contributes to the hunger for electricity. Cloud services, artificial intelligence, cryptocurrencies, and the Internet of Things (IoT) are driving the need for data centers. According to a study by the IEA (2024), data centers, data transmission networks and AI models could account for up to 8% of global electricity consumption by 2030 \u2013 more than all of Germany’s demand today.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The energy demand of the future: forecasts<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Scenarios from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) assume that global primary energy demand will increase by 25\u201330% by 2050 \u2013 even under ambitious climate targets. Not only the quantity, but also the structure of demand changes:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- More electricity:<\/strong>\u00a0The share of electrical energy in final energy consumption will increase from currently around 20% to over 50%.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- More flexibility:<\/strong>\u00a0Demand-oriented load management is becoming more important in order to compensate for fluctuating feed-in from the sun and wind.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- More storage:<\/strong>\u00a0The demand for energy storage (batteries, hydrogen, thermal storage) is growing exponentially.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
According to the IEA, global primary energy demand was around 620 EJ in 2023 (~598 EJ 2018; ~505 EJ 2010) According to BP Outlook, installed energy capacity (wind, solar, hydro, nuclear) will grow 8 to 14 times from now until 2050. In its baseline scenario (“Current Trajectory”), the BP Energy Outlook 2024 assumes an increase in primary energy from ~627 EJ today to approx. 692 EJ 2050<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Global energy demand is rising continuously from about 520 EJ (2000) to an estimated 780 EJ (2050). Installed capacity is growing disproportionately and theoretically significantly overtakes demand \u2013 through efficiency, renewable energies, growth in power plant capacity. This leads to a surplus of generable power, which BP cites as the reason for rising emissions despite expansion.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"Line](\"https:\/\/felss.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/BP-Energy-Outlook.webp\" "\\"BP")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\nThe apparent exceeding of the installed capacity compared to the primary energy demand<\/strong> in the BP Net Zero scenario<\/strong> is due to a fundamental change in the energy system \u2013 in particular due to the following three factors<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\ud83d\udd0c Electrification & Energy Losses in Conversion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- In a fossil system, a lot of primary energy is “burned”<\/strong>\u00a0to generate electricity or heat (with typical efficiency ~35\u201340%).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- In the case of direct electricity use<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. through heat pumps, e-mobility), the efficiency is much higher<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. 90% for e-cars vs. 20-25% for combustion engines).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- This means that you need much less primary energy<\/strong>\u00a0if you provide the same service electrically \u2013 but more installed power generation capacity<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
\ud83c\udf1e 2. Renewables have low capacity factor<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Solar and wind plants<\/strong>\u00a0have low full load hours<\/strong>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- PV: approx. 10\u201325 % capacitance factor<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Wind: approx. 25\u201345 %<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
This means that in order to \u00a0provide a certain amount of energy<\/strong>, you need many times more installed capacity<\/strong>\u00a0compared to base-load power plants such as gas or nuclear.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
As a result, the installed capacity is increasing dramatically \u2013 without the same increase in final energy consumption<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\ud83d\udd0b 3. Integration: Storage, Power-to-X, Grid Losses<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Renewable energies need more grid capacity, storage and backup power<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- \u00a0Power-to-X solutions<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. hydrogen from electrolysis) also increase electricity demand beyond conventional demand<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 even if the end use is more efficient.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- These additional requirements are included in the installed capacity, but not in the primary energy consumption<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
\ud83d\udcca Result<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
The discrepancy is therefore not a contradiction<\/strong>, but the consequence of structural change:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- From a loss-making fossil system<\/strong>\u00a0(a lot of primary energy, little usable energy)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Towards an efficient but capacity-intensive renewable system<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Overview of energy sources<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Energy sources can be divided into four main groups. These differ in efficiency, emissions, availability and acceptance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Fossil fuels: coal, oil, natural gas<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Nuclear energy sources: classic nuclear energy, new types of reactors<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Renewable energies: solar energy, wind power, hydropower, geothermal energy, biomass, ocean energy<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Synthetic energy carriers and storage: hydrogen, batteries, power-to-X, CCS<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
3. Fossil fuels: coal, oil, natural gas<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Fossil fuels are carbon-intensive, finite, and cause environmental problems such as air pollution and climate change. International energy agencies see their share falling to below 20% by 2050.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Fossil fuels \u2013 coal, oil and natural gas \u2013 formed the backbone of the world’s energy supply for over a century. As recently as 2023, around 80% of the world’s primary energy came from fossil sources (IEA, World Energy Outlook 2023). They are stored in geological deposits and were formed by millions of years of conversion processes of organic substances. The use of fossil fuels is associated with considerable CO\u2082 emissions: When burned, greenhouse gases are released, which contribute significantly to global warming.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Significance and historical role<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Fossil fuels \u2013 coal, oil and natural gas \u2013 shaped the global energy supply for over 150 years. The beginning of the industrial age in the 19th century was based on coal, later crude oil became the central fuel for mobility and industry, while natural gas was increasingly added as a source of heating and electricity in the 20th century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
As recently as 2023, the global share of fossil energy sources in primary energy supply was around <\/strong>79% according to the International Energy Agency (IEA)<\/strong> (World Energy Outlook 2023). They continue to dominate, especially in countries such as China, India, Russia and the USA \u2013 for reasons of availability, infrastructure and low costs in the short term.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
“Without a complete phase-out of fossil fuels by 2040, the global climate goals will not be achievable.” \u2014 Dr. Fatih Birol<\/strong>, Executive Director of the IEA (2023)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Technological characteristics and use<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Coal<\/strong>: Available in different qualities (lignite and hard coal), mainly used in power generation. Extremely CO\u2082-intensive, with emissions between 820\u20131,050 g CO\u2082\/kWh (IPCC, 2023).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Petroleum<\/strong>: Mainly used in transportation, petrochemical and industrial. Flexible in use, but not directly suitable for power generation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Natural gas<\/strong>: Discussed as a “bridging technology”, good controllability, relatively low CO\u2082 emissions (approx. 410\u2013650 g CO\u2082\/kWh), but problematic methane losses.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Environmental impacts and climate balance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The use of fossil fuels is the main cause of anthropogenic climate change. According to the IPCC Synthesis Report (2023),<\/strong> about 73% of all global greenhouse gas emissions come from the burning of fossil fuels. In addition, there are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Air pollution<\/strong> (particulate matter, NOx, SO\u2082)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Water pollution<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. during fracking)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Landscape destruction<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. open-cast mining)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Methane leaks<\/strong> (especially during natural gas production)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
“A large part of the health burden of air pollutants in urban areas can be traced back to fossil fuel combustion.” \u2014 The Lancet Countdown Report on Health and Climate Change (2022)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
Economy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
In the short term, fossil fuels often appear cheap \u2013 especially in countries with existing infrastructure. However, external costs such as environmental and health damage are often not priced in:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- UBA (2020): <\/strong>External costs of coal-fired power generation in Germany: up to 18 ct\/kWh<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- CO\u2082 price EU ETS (2024):<\/strong>\u00a0over 80 \u20ac\/t CO\u2082,<\/strong>\u00a0and rising<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
A switch to low-carbon technologies is becoming increasingly economically attractive due to government pricing of fossil emissions (e.g. ETS, CO\u2082 tax).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Storability and system flexibility<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Fossil fuels are inherently storable, storable and transportable. This makes them particularly suitable for:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Grid stabilization<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Base load and peak load coverage<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Buffering seasonal fluctuations<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
In a system with many renewable sources, their flexibility<\/strong> is still considered necessary to some extent today \u2013 a role that is to be replaced by hydrogen and storage solutions in the future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Political and social acceptance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Social<\/strong> acceptance is declining rapidly in many OECD countries, especially for coal (e.g. Germany, France, Sweden).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Politically<\/strong>\u00a0, fossil fuel projects are increasingly being stopped or definanced:\n
- \n
- G7 resolution 2021: No more money for fossil foreign investments<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- EU taxonomy: Only sustainable investments eligible for funding<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- UN Climate Change Summit COP28: Global phase-out path for coal announced<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Nevertheless, there are counter-movements<\/strong>\u00a0by interest groups, producing countries and state-subsidised energy markets.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Future viability and global scenarios<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
In the ambitious climate scenarios (e.g. IEA Net Zero by 2050<\/strong>, Agora Energiewende<\/strong>, Shell Sky 2050<\/strong>), the fossil fuel share of the energy mix in 2050 will be less than 10%,<\/strong> in particular limited to “residual applications” (steel, aviation, petrochemicals).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Nevertheless, many analysts see transitional phases in which natural gas with CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage)<\/strong> or H\u2082 blending<\/strong> temporarily remains.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
“The fossil era is coming to an end \u2013 not because of a shortage of resources, but because of climate limits.” \u2014 Prof. Volker Quaschning<\/strong>, HTW Berlin<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Criterion<\/strong><\/td> Evaluation of fossil energies<\/strong><\/td><\/tr> CO\u2082 balance<\/td> Very poor (highest emissions)<\/td><\/tr> Sustainability<\/td> poor (finite resources, environmental impact)<\/td><\/tr> Costs (short-term)<\/td> cheap (without CO\u2082 price), but deceptive<\/td><\/tr> System flexibility<\/td> high (storable, adjustable)<\/td><\/tr> Acceptance<\/td> Declining (social & political)<\/td><\/tr> Sustainability<\/td> low \u2013 phase-out recommended by 2040\/2050<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/figure>\n\n\n\n 4. Nuclear Energy and Small Modular Reactors (SMR)<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear energy offers low-carbon power generation, but is controversial because of risks, high costs and unresolved final storage. Countries such as France and China continue to rely on them, while Germany is exiting.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear energy is one of the most controversial energy sources. It uses the splitting of uranium or plutonium nuclei to generate large amounts of thermal energy, which is used to generate electricity. There are no CO\u2082 emissions during operation \u2013 which makes them attractive as a temporary solution for some experts from a climate policy perspective. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
In 2023, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), around 10% of the world’s electricity came from nuclear energy. France covers more than 70% of its electricity needs with nuclear power. In countries such as Germany, Austria or Italy, on the other hand, a complete phase-out has taken place or is planned. Social acceptance varies greatly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Small Modular Reactors (SMR) are new, more compact reactor types with a capacity of less than 300 MW. They promise lower construction costs, higher safety through passive cooling systems and better integration into decentralized grids. Canada, the United States and Finland are actively investing in their development. Critics, however, warn of unresolved questions about nuclear waste, the search for a repository and proliferation risks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The carbon footprint of nuclear energy is very low at around 12\u201330 g CO\u2082\/kWh (IPCC, 2022). However, there are long-term environmental risks from the radioactive waste, which must be stored safely for hundreds of thousands of years. Safety risks in the event of serious accidents such as those in Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) also have a negative impact on political acceptance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear energy is controversial economically: construction times of 10\u201315 years, high investment costs (over \u20ac10 billion per reactor) and high insurance costs make new projects in Western countries hardly feasible without massive government funding (Agora Energiewende, 2023).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Conclusion: Nuclear energy offers climate-friendly power generation, but high risks and social rejection limit its future viability. SMRs could play a niche role, but they will not play a major role in the global energy transition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
5. Renewable energies \u2013 sun, wind, water, biomass, geothermal energy<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Photovoltaics, wind energy, hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal energy are inexhaustible, climate-neutral and increasingly economical. According to IRENA, they could account for over 80% of the global electricity mix by 2050.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Renewable energies are considered the backbone of the future energy supply. They are based on natural, virtually inexhaustible sources such as sunlight, wind, water, plant biomass and geothermal energy. Unlike fossil or nuclear energy sources, they emit no or only small amounts of CO\u2082 during operation and are therefore essential for a climate-neutral future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
According to the Global Energy Monitor (2024), over 450 GW of renewable energy capacity was newly installed globally in 2023. In particular, the expansion of photovoltaics (PV) and wind power is experiencing exponential growth. In countries such as Denmark, Norway and Costa Rica, more than 90% of electricity already comes from renewable sources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Solar energy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Photovoltaic modules convert sunlight directly into electricity. The efficiency of modern modules is 20\u201323%. In sunny regions, electricity generation costs (LCOE) of less than 2 ct\/kWh are achievable (IEA 2023). The environmental balance is very good \u2013 CO\u2082 emissions are 20\u201370 g CO\u2082\/kWh, depending on the origin. Recycling and the use of resources (e.g. silicon, silver) remain challenges, but the circular economy is constantly improving.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Wind Energy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Onshore and offshore wind turbines are the second largest source of renewable electricity. They have a carbon footprint of only about 10\u201320 g CO\u2082\/kWh (UBA, 2022). Offshore wind farms offer great potential, but are associated with higher construction and maintenance costs. Land acceptance is a challenge in densely populated regions, although modern plants become more efficient and quieter through repowering.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Hydropower<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
This established technology supplies around 16% of the world’s electricity. However, large reservoirs cause significant interventions in ecosystems and social structures. Small hydropower plants are more ecologically compatible, but less efficient. The CO\u2082 balance is around 24 g CO\u2082\/kWh. In emerging countries, hydropower is often also used to control the water supply.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Biomass<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Bioenergy can be produced by combustion, gasification or fermentation of plant raw materials. Their CO\u2082 balance is only neutral if replanting is ensured. It is particularly suitable for process heat and biofuels, but is controversial due to competition for land with food production. Emissions of particulate matter or nitrogen oxides are also an issue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Geothermal energy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Deep geothermal energy can supply heat and electricity via geothermal power plants \u2013 especially in geologically active regions such as Iceland or Indonesia.\u00a0Near-surface geothermal energy is suitable for heat pumps. The technology is base-load capable, but expensive and locally limited. In Germany, the BMWK specifically supports geothermal projects with regional heat supply.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Conclusion: Renewable energies perform best in almost all sustainability criteria. Their biggest challenge lies in weather-dependent availability (volatility), which makes modern storage technologies, grid integration and sector coupling necessary. In addition, high investments are required in the initial phase, but these are offset by falling operating costs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
6. Storage technologies and synthetic energy carriers<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The volatile feed-in of renewable energies makes storage technologies such as batteries, pumped storage and hydrogen systems essential. Grid expansion and intelligent control systems are also necessary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
With the steadily increasing demand for climate-neutral energy, innovative technologies and synthetic energy sources are gaining in importance. The aim is to make energy usable where sun and wind are not continuously available, and to be able to use energy sources across sectors \u2013 for example in transport, industry and the heating sector. Such solutions extend the range of renewable energies and enable so-called sector coupling.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Power-to-X (PtX)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The term “Power-to-X” describes technological concepts in which electricity \u2013 ideally from renewable sources \u2013 is converted into other chemical or thermal energy sources. These include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Power-to-gas<\/strong>: Electricity is converted into hydrogen by electrolysis. This can be stored, used directly or synthesized with CO\u2082 to methane.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Power-to-liquid<\/strong>: Production of synthetic liquid fuels (e-fuels), especially for aviation and maritime transport.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Power-to-Chemicals<\/strong>: Use of electricity to produce raw materials for the chemical industry.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
These technologies enable the seasonal storage of energy and its use in areas that are difficult to electrify.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Green hydrogen<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Green hydrogen is considered a key technology for the decarbonization of hard-to-electrify sectors such as industry, aviation and shipping. However, it requires a lot of renewable energy to produce.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Green hydrogen is produced by electrolysis of water with renewable electricity and is therefore CO\u2082-free. It is considered a central component of the energy transition, especially for applications such as:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Steel production (e.g. direct reduction of iron ore)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Fuel cells in trucks, trains and ships<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- High-temperature processes in the chemical industry<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
The biggest challenge lies in efficiency: electrolysis requires about 50\u201360 kWh of electricity per kilogram of hydrogen. However, scaling is underway \u2013 according to the EU’s hydrogen strategy, 10 million tonnes of green hydrogen are to be produced annually by 2030.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Synthetic fuels (e-fuels)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
E-fuels can be used in existing combustion engines and thus offer a bridging technology, especially for aircraft, ships and existing fleets. They consist of green hydrogen and CO\u2082 from the air or industrial processes. However, their production is expensive and energy-intensive. The overall efficiency is often less than 20%. Therefore, e-fuels are primarily needed for applications with high energy density.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Thermochemical storage<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
In addition to battery electricity, thermochemical storage systems (e.g. with salt solutions or reactions such as Ca(OH)\u2082 \u2194 CaO + H\u2082O) offer a possibility for seasonal energy storage. Such systems are under development for district solutions and industrial clusters, for example as part of research projects at Fraunhofer ISE and DLR.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Space Solar Power Plants<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
One visionary approach is to install solar panels in space, where the sun shines continuously. The energy generated is to be transmitted to Earth by microwave or laser. The first pilot concepts are being developed in China and Japan, among other places. Cost-effectiveness, technical risks and social acceptance are currently still high hurdles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Quotes and voices from research:<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Dr. Fatih Birol (IEA):<\/strong>\u00a0“Green hydrogen will become the backbone of climate-neutral industry in Europe.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Agora Energiewende (2023):<\/strong>\u00a0“Power-to-X is not an end in itself \u2013 it is the bridge between electricity surplus and sector coupling.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Fraunhofer UMSICHT:<\/strong> “Synthetic fuels offer a high degree of flexibility, but are energy-intensive.”<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
7. Global developments and geopolitical aspects<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The global energy transition is not only a technical challenge, but also a major geopolitical and economic project with far-reaching consequences for international power relations, trade relations and security structures. The transition from fossil fuels to renewable and synthetic energy sources is changing existing dependencies and creating new dynamics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Geopolitical power shifts<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
In the 20th century, oil- and gas-rich countries such as Saudi Arabia, Russia and the USA dominated geopolitical energy events. With the decline of fossil fuels, these countries are gradually losing influence, while countries with great potential for renewable energies or critical raw materials are increasingly moving to the center of the geopolitical stage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- China<\/strong>\u00a0has become the leading producer of photovoltaic modules, wind turbines, batteries and electrolyzers. Around 80% of global PV value added is in Chinese hands (IEA, 2023).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Chile<\/strong>\u00a0is positioning itself as an export nation for green hydrogen and ammonia, supported by excellent conditions for wind and solar power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Morocco<\/strong>\u00a0is investing in large-scale solar power plants and pipelines to export hydrogen to Europe.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
These shifts open up opportunities, but also create new dependencies \u2013 especially in the area of technology and raw material supply.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Critical raw materials and new dependencies<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The energy transition is exponentially increasing the demand for certain raw materials: lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite and rare earths are essential for batteries, wind power generators and PV systems. Many of these substances are extracted in geopolitically unstable regions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2022), the demand for lithium could increase eightfold by 2040 and quadruple for cobalt. A large part of these raw materials comes from a few countries: about 70% of the cobalt comes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, over 60% of the lithium from Australia, over 90% of the rare earths are processed in China.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
This creates new dependencies and strategic challenges:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Diversification of supply chains:<\/strong>\u00a0Development of alternative producing countries (e.g. Canada, Brazil, Portugal).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Recycling and Circular Economy:<\/strong>\u00a0Developing efficient recovery processes for batteries and components.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Technological substitution:<\/strong>\u00a0Research on substitute materials or reduction strategies for critical elements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
International Cooperation and Energy Justice<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
While industrialised countries are investing massively in green infrastructure, many countries in the Global South lack the financial and technological means for a sustainable transformation. This threatens to create a global energy gap.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
To counteract this trend, initiatives such as the Just Energy Transition Partnerships (JETPs)<\/strong> have been launched. Wealthy countries (G7, EU) are providing capital to support emerging economies such as South Africa, Indonesia and Vietnam in a socially just coal phase-out.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Example: South Africa will receive around 8.5 billion US dollars by 2027 for the restructuring of its coal industry \u2013 financed by Germany, France, Great Britain, the USA and the EU.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Energy and safety<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Decentralization and electrification increase the resilience of energy systems, but bring with them new security issues:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Cybersecurity<\/strong>: Smart grids and digital networks are vulnerable to attacks.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Security of supply<\/strong>: Local production of green hydrogen or electricity reduces import dependencies, but requires storage solutions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- War and energy prices<\/strong>: The war in Ukraine has had a massive impact on energy prices and highlighted the vulnerability of fossil imports \u2013 an additional driver for renewable energies in Europe.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Quotes and analyses:<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Fatih Birol (IEA, 2022):<\/strong>\u00a0“The geopolitical maps of energy are being redrawn \u2013 with critical raw materials as new pawns.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Federal Academy for Security Policy (2023):<\/strong>\u00a0“Energy is not only a question of sustainability, but also of geopolitical stability.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- IRENA Global Landscape of Renewable Energy Finance (2023):<\/strong> “The energy transition can only succeed globally with international cooperation.”<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
8. Social acceptance and political framework conditions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Renewables are increasingly accepted if participation and regional value creation are given. Policy instruments such as carbon pricing, subsidies and international agreements are crucial.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The implementation of the energy transition depends crucially on social acceptance and stable political framework conditions. Technological progress alone is not enough \u2013 without the support of the population and clear regulatory guidelines, expansion, investment and transformation will come to a standstill.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Social acceptance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The willingness of the population to support renewable energies depends heavily on the perceived benefits, the fairness of implementation and participation in decision-making processes. Especially when it comes to the expansion of wind turbines and grid expansion, there is always local resistance \u2013 a phenomenon that is often discussed under the slogan “Not In My Backyard” (NIMBY).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A study by the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (ISI)<\/strong> from 2022 shows that early information, transparent decision-making processes and economic participation significantly increase acceptance.<\/strong> Citizen energy projects, in which residents participate directly in the proceeds, promote identification and trust in the energy transition.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Social justice also plays a central role: Who bears the costs of the transformation \u2013 for example through rising electricity prices? Who benefits from subsidies such as the Building Energy Act or the e-car premium? A fair distribution of burdens and opportunities is essential to secure social support in the long term.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
“The energy transition needs not only engineers, but also social scientists \u2013 because acceptance is a key success factor.” \u2014 Prof. Ortwin Renn, Director of the IASS Potsdam<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Political framework<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Reliable, transparent and long-term political guardrails are essential for investments in renewable energies, storage technologies and climate-friendly infrastructure. A central example of this is the German Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG),<\/strong> which has made a significant contribution to the global spread of photovoltaics since 2000.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Currently, politicians around the world are setting different priorities:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- EU \u2013 Green Deal & Fit for 55:<\/strong>With the Green Deal, the European Union is pursuing the goal of being climate-neutral by 2050. Core instruments are the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS),<\/strong>\u00a0binding sector targets and the expansion of renewable energies to over 42% by 2030.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- USA \u2013 Inflation Reduction Act (IRA):<\/strong>The IRA provides over $360 billion for clean technologies. This will massively promote the development of green industries such as battery production, solar module production and hydrogen production.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- China \u2013 Central expansion targets:<\/strong>China is pursuing state-controlled expansion with targets and long-term industrial plans. By 2030, the share of non-fossil energies in the primary energy supply is to increase to at least 25%.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
International cooperation<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Global challenges such as climate change require multilateral solutions. The energy transition can only succeed if countries work together \u2013 whether in the expansion of transnational power grids, in the establishment of an international hydrogen market or in the standardisation of sustainability standards.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Examples of international energy cooperation:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Just Energy Transition Partnerships (JETPs):<\/strong>\u00a0Support emerging economies in the socially acceptable coal phase-out, e.g. South Africa, Indonesia, Vietnam.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- EU-MENA Hydrogen Corridor:<\/strong>\u00a0Cooperation between Europe and North African countries to build a green hydrogen economy.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- IRENA & IPHE:<\/strong> International organizations that promote knowledge sharing, data standards, and policy coordination.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Result<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The transformation of energy systems is not only a technical, but also a social and political task. Without the trust and active participation of the population as well as without consistent and ambitious political frameworks, the success of the energy transition is in danger of failing. What is needed is a broad-based vision that combines social justice, economic participation and ecological responsibility.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Sources and further reading:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Fraunhofer ISI (2022): Acceptance and Participation in the Energy Transition<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- IASS Potsdam (2021): Societal Dimensions of the Energy Transition<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- European Commission (2023): Fit for 55 and Green Deal Policy Briefs<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- U.S. Department of Energy (2023): Inflation Reduction Act Implementation Plan<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- IRENA (2023): World Energy Transitions Outlook<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Agora Energiewende (2023): Global Energy Transition Policy in Comparison<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
9. Evaluation of energy sources according to future criteria<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
In view of the large number of available energy sources, the central question arises: Which energy sources are sustainable \u2013 ecologically, economically, socially and technologically?<\/strong> To answer this question, a structured assessment based on central criteria is necessary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Evaluation standards<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The following categories form the basis for the systematic comparison:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- CO\u2082 emissions (direct\/indirect)<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sustainability and resource conservation<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Kosten (Levelized Cost of Energy \u2013 LCOE)<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Storage and transport capability<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Technological maturity<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Social acceptance<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Scalability & Global Potentials<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Political and geopolitical risks<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
Overview of the most important energy sources<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n
![\"Table](\"https:\/\/felss.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/11\/2025-10-01_What-is-the-energy-source-of-the-future-pdf-11-18-2025_05_39_PM-1024x857.webp\" "\\"Comparison")
<\/figure>\n\n\n\nQuelle: IEA World Energy Outlook 2023, Fraunhofer ISE, IPCC AR6 Report, Agora Energiewende<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Interpretation and discussion<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
- \n
- Photovoltaics<\/strong>\u00a0and onshore wind power<\/strong>\u00a0perform excellently in almost all criteria. They are cost-effective, climate-friendly and technically sophisticated \u2013 but weather-dependent and can only be controlled to a limited extent without storage.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Offshore wind power<\/strong>\u00a0offers higher yields and greater land potential, but at higher costs and with technical challenges in infrastructure (e.g. grid connection, maintenance at sea).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Hydropower<\/strong>\u00a0is very efficient, but geographically very limited and ecologically controversial (river straightening, interventions in ecosystems).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Green hydrogen<\/strong>\u00a0is being treated as a key technology for sector coupling and storage. However, high costs and inefficient conversion losses (approx. 30-40% from electricity to hydrogen) are still major challenges at present.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Nuclear energy<\/strong>\u00a0offers base-load-capable low-carbon energy, but remains controversial due to costs, long-term risks and social rejection (especially in Germany, Austria, Switzerland).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Offshore wind power<\/strong>\u00a0offers higher yields and greater land potential, but at higher costs and with technical challenges in infrastructure (e.g. grid connection, maintenance at sea).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sustainability and resource conservation<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- IASS Potsdam (2021): Societal Dimensions of the Energy Transition<\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- EU-MENA Hydrogen Corridor:<\/strong>\u00a0Cooperation between Europe and North African countries to build a green hydrogen economy.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- USA \u2013 Inflation Reduction Act (IRA):<\/strong>The IRA provides over $360 billion for clean technologies. This will massively promote the development of green industries such as battery production, solar module production and hydrogen production.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Federal Academy for Security Policy (2023):<\/strong>\u00a0“Energy is not only a question of sustainability, but also of geopolitical stability.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Security of supply<\/strong>: Local production of green hydrogen or electricity reduces import dependencies, but requires storage solutions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Recycling and Circular Economy:<\/strong>\u00a0Developing efficient recovery processes for batteries and components.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Chile<\/strong>\u00a0is positioning itself as an export nation for green hydrogen and ammonia, supported by excellent conditions for wind and solar power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Agora Energiewende (2023):<\/strong>\u00a0“Power-to-X is not an end in itself \u2013 it is the bridge between electricity surplus and sector coupling.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Dr. Fatih Birol (IEA):<\/strong>\u00a0“Green hydrogen will become the backbone of climate-neutral industry in Europe.”<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Power-to-liquid<\/strong>: Production of synthetic liquid fuels (e-fuels), especially for aviation and maritime transport.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Power-to-gas<\/strong>: Electricity is converted into hydrogen by electrolysis. This can be stored, used directly or synthesized with CO\u2082 to methane.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Politically<\/strong>\u00a0, fossil fuel projects are increasingly being stopped or definanced:\n
- Social<\/strong> acceptance is declining rapidly in many OECD countries, especially for coal (e.g. Germany, France, Sweden).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- CO\u2082 price EU ETS (2024):<\/strong>\u00a0over 80 \u20ac\/t CO\u2082,<\/strong>\u00a0and rising<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
- Water pollution<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. during fracking)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Petroleum<\/strong>: Mainly used in transportation, petrochemical and industrial. Flexible in use, but not directly suitable for power generation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Nuclear energy sources: classic nuclear energy, new types of reactors<\/strong><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Towards an efficient but capacity-intensive renewable system<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
- \u00a0Power-to-X solutions<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. hydrogen from electrolysis) also increase electricity demand beyond conventional demand<\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 even if the end use is more efficient.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Renewable energies need more grid capacity, storage and backup power<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- In the case of direct electricity use<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. through heat pumps, e-mobility), the efficiency is much higher<\/strong>\u00a0(e.g. 90% for e-cars vs. 20-25% for combustion engines).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- More flexibility:<\/strong>\u00a0Demand-oriented load management is becoming more important in order to compensate for fluctuating feed-in from the sun and wind.<\/li>\n\n\n\n